Endnote x word 2013 plugin7/2/2023 For example, in the Chrome browser there is the EndNote Capture Reference extension. For those who have set up the free EndNote online account, there are browser extensions that scan website pages for bibliographic information to import into EndNote online, which can then be synced with the desktop version. There are over fifty reference types, including web-sites, book chapters, artwork, grants, databases, music, social media, and more. Users may also choose to add a new reference manually. Again, once the file is downloaded, users click on the downloaded file to open the record in EndNote. References can also be imported from Google Scholar by clicking on the double quotation mark icon beneath the record then selecting EndNote. Once the RIS file is downloaded, users click on the download to open the records in the Recently Added folder in EndNote. How to export the references varies by database, but most have some option to export references, and some offer a direct export to End-Note online or to download the RIS format. Users have the option to import individual or batch records from databases like PubMed and Web of Science. Importing references into EndNote has not changed. The option to use the keyboard shortcut Alt+2 is also available. The added clicks are not ideal but may encourage users to use the Insert Citation feature available in the document. For example, in version X9, a user could select a record and click on the insert reference icon to have the citation inserted into their document with version 20, the user can still insert a reference from End-Note by selecting the record, then clicking on Tools in the menu bar, then selecting Cite While You Write, then selecting Insert Selected Citations. Though most of the one-click icons have been removed, their functionality remains. Only five one-click icons remain: adding a new reference, sharing a group, exporting references, searching for full text, and creating a Web of Science citation report. The new user interface has removed most of the toolbar icons in favor of a less crowded toolbar area. For those updating the software, it may take a while to get used to the new workflow created by the redesign however, importing references and using the Cite While You Write feature have remained the same. The last step has users create their first library or open an existing library if they are updating the software. Users follow the installation wizard to install the software. To get the full benefit of the software, users also need to have word processing software: Microsoft Word, Apple Pages, Wolfram Mathematica 8, TextEdit, Apache OpenOffice, Nisus Writer, or Mellel. Though the software can be installed on Windows 7, users will quickly discover it does not function properly. The most significant change in the technical requirements for personal computer users is that EndNote 20 requires the Windows 10 operating system. Technical specifications should be confirmed before downloading. The instructions for downloading the software will depend on whether or not the user has an individual license or if the software is provided by the user's institution. īefore using the EndNote desktop version, the software must be downloaded and installed. discuss the pitfalls of using these identifiers for deduplication and instead provide a method for conducting a more effective and accurate procedure. Deduplication of records is used heavily in systematic reviews. The new function is the ability to deduplicate by PubMed Central's identifier (PMCID) or the Digital Object Identifier (DOI). The update includes a major overhaul to the user interface and adds one additional function. This review focuses on EndNote 20 for personal computer users, as EndNote operates differently on a Mac.ĮndNote 20, an update from the version X9 desktop software, was released by Clarivate in October 2020. EndNote offers a free online version and a paid desktop version, which can be synced to the online account and allows users to share their libraries. Zotero and Mendeley are free online products, and RefWorks requires a paid subscription. There are many reference management software products on the market, for example Zotero, Mendeley, RefWorks, and EndNote. All reference management software allows users to import, organize, and maintain bibliographic records. Reference management software, also called citation management software, is primarily used in academia and research.
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Letter of recommendation7/2/2023 It is a great pleasure to recommend Sarah for the marketing position with Cooper Agency. It is also worth re-reading to check for major style and tonal changes.Įxample of a Good Letter of Recommendation Proofread carefully to ensure you did not slip up and write in first person. This may seem obvious, but you have to remember that you are writing from your recommender's point of view. Your recommender can only speak to skills and qualities they have observed in their professional setting, so make sure you only write about things they would know. Only include relevant skills and examples.Describe your relationship and explain how long you have known or worked with one another. This can be challenging when writing from your recommender's point of view, but it is important to include for credibility. State the recommender's relationship to you.Make a list of relevant skills and qualifications and include as many as you can, providing specific examples to back them up. Modesty is the last thing you need in a recommendation letter. When writing your own letter of recommendation, keep these tips in mind. Expect questions, comments, and changes before the letter is ready to be submitted. You should not expect them to sign off on the letter automatically. Your recommender asked you to write a draft, not the final version. Make sure that your recommender touches on all of the achievements, skills, and qualities you need highlighted.īe open to edits. After all, who knows you better than you do? You can make sure that your recommender touches on all of the achievements, skills, and qualities you need highlighted, rather than leaving it to chance. However, the trick is to see this as an opportunity. Listing out your own skills and abilities can be difficult and uncomfortable. However, whether it is due to a time constraint or because they believe you can write the letter more effectively, this request is actually pretty common.įor some, this request may result in confusion and anxiety. When approaching a supervisor, mentor, or professor to request a letter of recommendation, the last thing you might expect is that they will ask you to pen the first draft. If you do not know the student well enough to provide specific examples, be honest with them so they can find a better option.įive Tips for Writing a Letter of Recommendation for Yourself Recommendations are meant to individualize the student by speaking to their unique skills and qualities. If you do not feel qualified, it is okay to turn down a recommendation request.If a student is hoping to attend a school that specializes in engineering, focus on skills that relate to that discipline. Take the specific job or school into account.Avoid cliches and describe the student's traits and abilities through thoughtful examples and personal anecdotes. Your goal is to make this recipient stand out from the crowd. Stay away from vague wording and phrases.Recalling specific times when the student excelled in a particular role or class helps the reader get a clearer understanding of them. Recommendations are valuable because they give the reader a chance to learn about the student beyond their test scores and achievements. Provide specific examples of the student's abilities and work ethic.This provides credibility regarding your relationship. Before you dive into strengths and traits, first state how long you have known them and how you became acquainted. Describe your personal relationship with the student.If a student asks you to write a letter of recommendation for them, here are a few tips to keep in mind. The most important thing about choosing someone to write a letter of recommendation is that the person writing the letter must know the student well enough to accurately describe their abilities and passions while describing them in the best light. Professors and academic advisors are also great resources, especially for students applying to a more advanced academic program. These individuals are familiar with a student's work ethic and ability to handle tasks under pressure. When selecting someone to write a letter of recommendation, students should first look to current or past employers or supervisors. Metes and bounds survey definition7/2/2023 Those quadrangles are divided into smaller squares called townships. Using those lines for references, quadrangles are formed, which are smaller squares identifiable by where they are located near the principal meridian and baseline. These principal meridian lines are named or numbered to identify their location. The rectangular survey system is comprised of principal meridian lines that cover most states in the US, running north to south and baselines running east to west. Metes and Bounds surveys are still used in many states however, they differ from the Public Land Survey System as they are not based on any grid but instead identify objects on the land, measurements, and compass directions. This system was part of the Land Ordinance enacted in 1785 by President Thomas Jefferson.īefore the Rectangular Survey System was established, the Metes and Bounds survey was the only way of identifying who owned what land. As the United States grew from its original 13 colonies, a system was needed to identify who owned what land. The Rectangular Survey System was established in 1785 to identify, divide, and measure land, creating boundary lines for property owners. The grid is divided into smaller sections known as quadrangles, townships, sections, half-sections, and quarter-sections, used to describe property boundaries in most of the United States. The Rectangular Survey System, also known as the Government Survey System or Public Land Survey System, is a method of plotting land boundaries in the United States using a large grid made up of rectangles. Jeveasset wealth tracker not working7/2/2023 In tests of reaction time and quality of decision-making involving more than 300 active LEOs, Taylor has found that: Paul Taylor, a former officer who’s now an assistant professor of Criminal Justice at the University of Colorado-Denver and a figure of rising prominence in the field of deadly force dynamics. That’s a key finding of just-published new research by Dr. How you react to that pressurized uncertainty – and whether your split-second decision proves to be righteous or a tragic misjudgment – may depend on how you’ve positioned your firearm in anticipation of possible trouble. If you do not have any of the above watches, iTouchWearablesSmartwatch will not work with your device.By sacrificing a minuscule amount of reaction time, an officer may be able to cut the risk of committing a mistake-of-fact shooting. Thanks for joining the iTouch Movement where living healthier is a way of life. Start your journey into a fit, healthy life the right way with the iTouch Wearables mobile app and enjoy the fruits of your labor. With Over-The-Air (OTA) support, your watch will always receive any updates to help keep you up-to-date with any new additions available.ĬONNECTED GPS - Create a custom route or just keep track of where you've been and where you're going with this useful feature. 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Crystal dash grub hollow knight7/2/2023 Once hitting the ground the dive creates a small shockwave that delivers a shockwave that spreads out and up. If down B is used in the air the Knight will perform desolate dive! The Knight glows a white aura as they descend quickly downward with energy coursing around them. So focus gives you great health back with the risk of even a 0.5% hit stopping the move in its tracks. If the Knight can focus energy without taking any DMG for 3 seconds they use up 3 SOUL charge but they also recover 15% DMG after the focus special is finished! To use focus you need to have at least three SOUL charge, and taking any DMG or trying to dodge while trying to heal will immediately stop the special and drain 3 SOUL charge. If down B is used on the ground, the Knight will begin to course with energy being drawn in all around itself. The recovery deals DMG but will also put the Knight into a free fall state once the peak is reached and you can only travel upwards.ĭown B- Focus/Desolate Dive/ Descending Dark- A unique special with three different abilities dependent on circumstances. The crystal heart has three heights depending on how long it is charged the first is about as high as Bayonetta’s up special, the second is about as high as Pit’s up special, and the third being as high as Lucario’s full aura up special (but takes about 4-5 seconds to charge). Up B- Crystal Heart- A chargeable recovery that does not use any SOUL, the Knight charges up as crystals form around it and shoots itself high into the air! While in the air only air will gather around the Knight, but when used on the ground crystals will form around the Knight to indicate how high the crystal heart will launch. With the shade cloak the side special has the same effect but it will instead deal stabbing DMG also as the Knight slices through the opponent and is engulfed in the darkness of void. If the Knight has a full SOUL charge, they will instead use the shade cloak! Unlike in the game, in Smash the shade cloak will use 1 SOUL charge. The Mothwing Cloak does have a 2 second cooldown lag between uses. The mothwing cloak uses no SOUL to use and does not deal DMG, instead it acts as an extended dodge and allows the Knight to dodge attacks and zip by opponents to get behind them. Side B- Mothwing Cloak/Shade Cloak- Using the mothwing cloak, the Knight dashes forward quickly in a similar style to Fox’s side special but without the startup lag. It will instead continue to travel forward and dealing havoc until it exits the stage! The shade soul will take 2 SOUL charges after casting. The shade soul is an entirely black void filled spirit that will not disappear after hitting an opponent or surface. If the Knight’s SOUL charge is full when used, the Knight will instead cast Shade Soul, a more powerful version of vengeful spirit. The vengeful spirit will disappear once it makes contact with an opponent or surface. The spirit is a powerful projectile, and will use up 1 SOUL per use. SOUL is recovered gradually with every successful hit (about three hits fills one soul) and even more with a successful smash attack (a successful smash attack will fill an entire SOUL charge).ī- Vengeful Spirit/Shade Soul- The Knight congers a spirit projectile and sends it flying forward to burn its opponents! The vengeful spirit will travel all the way across screen until it hits an opponent, surface, or goes off stage. All of The Knight’s specials are unique in that they have two phases depending on how charged up the SOUL charge is. The way to recover SOUL is by taking DMG or by delivering attacks, meaning The Knight is a character who is deadly from a distance but needs to keep pressure on opponents to constantly refill their SOUL to keep up those attacks. Different moves use SOUL in different ways. Above The Knight’s health bar are 6 SOUL charges that appear exactly like the ones from Hollow Knight. The Knight from Hollow Knight joins smash bros as a new fighter!! Knight utilizes an energy source known as “SOUL” for most of his specials and certain attacks. They then take out their sword in a challenge pose (just like when challenging certain bosses in HK) and gets ready to battle! Smash is no stranger to spoilers though, but still SPOILER WARNING)Įntrance: The Knight teleports onto the stage using a dream gate and appears in a burst of essence. Zombies also has a PvP mode where can put your zombie-killing skill to the test! In this game, you’ll compete against other players in the Arena where the player with the highest score wins! To do this, you need to earn coins, pinatas and more to smash your way to the leaderboards! Go forth and be the best Plants vs. PvP Mode – Aside from those wonderful features, Plants vs. That’s why you need to strategically place your plants so that you can maximize their powers. Also, there are more types of zombies so you better memorize all of them! Each of them has their own characteristics and some plants may not be strong enough to defeat them. New and improve breed of plants and zombies – To make this sequel more exciting, the developers have added more plants and trees in this game. For a mobile game, it’s everything you want and more! You’ll be addicted by how everything is well-designed in this game as it should be. They do it with style! Aside from that, the accompanying sounds are as well-placed as ever as this sets the mood for the entire game. But what’s worth noting are the brand-new effects that you’ll see when your plants kill off zombies. Everything is well-designed in this game even if it’s just a 2D platform. The wacky plants and zombies are back for more action. Impressive graphics and sound – Everything we love about Plants vs. But the extra power it casts is enough to throw the zombies off their game! However, these skills can’t be collected as you need to spend the coins as you use each. Aside from these, there will be support skills that have three types: throw, shock, and freeze. These leaves are tonic such as when applied to plants, it will receive impressive skills. By playing the game, you will receive the magic clover. As evidence of this, trees have their own “killer” skills. Skill system – Everything in this game is upgraded to the next level. Zombies 2 may look similar to the older games, there are more features this time around! One of these are the different landscapes in which you’ll play! Aside from that, here are the features of Plants vs. This certainly adds a whole new level of challenge to the series we all love! Features of Plants vs. Or in some cases, it will prompt you to not plant more than 15 trees. Thankfully, the plants have also upgraded and you’ll see many new breeds being developed at your disposal.īut before you can finish the stages, there are certain requirements you need to meet such as not letting the zombies cross the line. This makes the game so much more exciting than the previous ones! However, there are more dangerous zombies just lurking around so you need to be careful. These will serve as the new arena for your fight against the zombies! Each land has 25 to 38 grueling levels to complete before going into the next one. These lands include pirate sea and many more. In here, you’ll find 10 keys across the space which will bring you to different kinds of lands. But in this game, you suddenly got lost in the past in ancient Egypt. You must protect your brains because the zombies will try to eat it. The storyline is also based from the original version. Zombies series? It’s so popular that this game has over 10 million downloads in Google Play Store alone! The main goal is still the same – protect your house at all costs against the raging zombies! To do this, you need to fortify your zones with fighting plants. In this game, the zombies are back and they’re stronger than ever! But so are your plants! Get ready for another epic clash as you pave your way to victory! Read on to know more! What is Plants vs. Zombies 2 which is the installment to the series. After much success, they recently released Plants vs. However, once you’ve played it, you’d understand why there’s so much noise for this game.Ī decade later and the franchise is still going strong and is now available on mobile. The game’s premise was simple – defend your house against hordes of zombies using only plants! If you didn’t know this game, you’d think that this was a joke just reading this sentence. Zombies game was first released in 2009, everyone immediately joined the hype. Sketchup pro 2019 mac torrent7/2/2023 Furthermore, SketchUp Pro License Key offers a very special transparency feature with which you can create high-quality models.In this new version, more tools for display of multiple transparencies are provided. You can draw 3D design as your image or think without any limitations or stall. The inclusion of much simple and easy user interface has made it an extension of your hand. SketchUp Pro Serial Key with Activation KeySo with this, you can also completely explain your design. Further, it includes a LayOut feature which lets you design different pages, create drafts, draw vector illustration as well as prepare slide presentations. With this, you can produce more accurate and perfectly scaled drawings for your projects. You can also use it to create amazing details if different projects such as draw plans, title blocks, layout designs and much more.And it allows auto documentation which changes with changes in your model. SketchUp Pro Crack is not only for creating 3D models. In addition, it also enables users to use 2D designing as well. SketchUp Pro License Key + Keygen HereEspecially, it has many customization options for creating a 3D architecture for different buildings or other objects. As well as It offers a very easy way to design all types of projects in 3D without any complication. With this, you can render all kinds of scenes and models with great realism. Also, it supports many formats for different types of drawing, designs, and models. Moreover, you can improve your graphics processor unit speed by using graphics pipelines.Which allows much faster processing. It also is compatible with many types of operating systems including Windows and Mac. As well as programming diagrams, documentation, designing details and much more can be done using this application. SketchUp Crack with TorrentSketchUp Pro 2019 Crack is a very efficient and powerful application for all stages of designing from the early phases to the end of development. There is plenty of advanced features including the textures, amazing lighting effects. It is furnished with the big icons as well as the amazing toolbars that make it interesting and quite simple even for the CAD beginners. SketchUp Pro 2019 Crack is truly an advanced software in the field of the 3D graphic and the designs. It is used for 3D modeling computer program for the wide range of drawing applications like as interior design, landscape architectural, mechanical and civil engineering. SketchUp Pro 2019 Crack is the one and the only useful drawing application software.Sketchup 2019 Com Cracker Torrent Software.These tools help you to draw something like real-world. You can get your imagination as it is on your system. SketchUp Pro 19.1.174 Crack 2019 Mac + Windows is a professional tool to draw a sketch on your system. SketchUp Pro 2019 Crack Download Full With License Key + Torrent. Montana time zone est7/2/2023 Mountain Standard Time (MST) and Pacific Standard Time (PST) are being compared! Daylight Saving Time is observed in the majority of regions. Is there a difference between MST and PST? Simply put, El Paso is on Mountain Time because it is located far enough west. What is the significance of El Paso being on Mountain Time? Mountain Daylight Saving Time (MDT) is 2 hours behind of Eastern DaylightTime MDT When it comes to mountain time, how far behind are you? Time zones in the United States Time Zone Six different time zones Where does the Mountain time zone start and end?Īrizona*, Colorado, part of Idaho, part of Kansas, Montana, part of Nebraska, New Mexico, part of North Dakota, part of Oregon, part of South Dakota, part of Texas, Utah, and Wyoming are all part of the Mountain Time Zone. In the United States, how many time zones are there? In 2019, the European Union is considering abolishing mandatory clock adjustments. Arizona and Hawaii do not utilize daylight saving time their clocks remain the same all year. The clocks should be set back one hour at 2 a.m., to 1 a.m. The clocks go back one hour early on Sunday, November 4 in Utah and the rest of the United States. Is Utah’s time zone different from the rest of the country? The Prime Meridian was found to be the transit circle at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London, as the reference line or beginning point. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is a time zone in the United (GMT) was adopted as the world’s time standard at the time. What is the difference between the various time zones?Ītlantic Standard Time (AST), Eastern Standard Time (EST), Central Standard Time (CST), Mountain Standard Time (MST), Pacific Standard Time (PST), Alaskan Standard Time (AKST), Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time (HST), Samoa Standard Time (UTC-11), and Chamorro Standard Time (UTC+10) are the time zones from east to west, respectively. Because Utah (UT) is one hour ahead of Nevada (NV), this will take place between 7 a.m. If you reside in Nevada and wish to contact a buddy in Utah, try phoning them between the hours of 6:00 a.m. Is Utah one hour ahead of Nevada in terms of time? What time zone does Utah belong to? In the United States of America, Utah is in the Mountain Time Zone (USA). What is the number of time zones in Utah? local time, Utah began Daylight Saving Time. Utah Time Zone – Current Time in Utah – Daylight Saving Time in Utah Utah Time Zone Information Is Utah on the Mountain Standard Time (MST) or the Mountain Daylight Time (MDT)? Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and portions of Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, and Texas are also included in the MST zone.Īnswers to Related Questions Is Utah on Eastern Standard Time (EST) or Pacific Standard Time (PST)? Mountain Standard Time is the time zone in Arizona. Is there a time difference between Utah and Arizona? MDT (Montana Daylight Time) is the abbreviation for Mountain Daylight Time.ĭaylight Saving Time is observed in Central, Utah. MST (Montana Standard Time) is the abbreviation for Mountain Standard Time. Is it also Mountain or Central time in Utah?Ĭurrent Local Time in Central, Utah – Central, Utah TimeZone Central, Utah Time Zone Information Second, in Utah, what is the name of the time zone? In Utah, the current time zone is Mountain Standard Time. Salt Lake City is a city in Utah.’s Time Has Changed Over the Years Year In this case, where does the time shift in Utah? The time zone for Utah is Mountain Standard Time (MST).Ĭurrent local time in Salt Lake City is a city in Utah., Salt Lake County, Utah, in the Mountain Time Zone (DST) – DST changes in 2020. It shares borders with Nevada, Colorado, and Arizona. Utah is a state in the United States of America. We’ve researched the answer for you so that you don’t have to flip through pages or sift through hundreds of links. This is especially true when crossing international borders and visiting new countries. When you’re traveling, it’s often difficult to keep track of time zones. Gravity 20137/2/2023 The technology needed to clean up your own dead satellites is pretty much identical to what it would take to shoot down another country’s very much alive ones, and China was no doubt signaling that it had the wherewithal. shot down one of its own dead satellites-ostensibly to prevent it from spinning out of control, but probably as a military riposte to China, which had pulled off a similar bit of cosmic marksmanship the year before. What’s more, a satellite-demolishing chain reaction would never happen in the first place. ( PHOTOS: Space Shuttle Endeavour Journeys Through Los Angeles) Shuttles fly at that high inclination when they’re visiting the ISS, but they wouldn’t be anywhere remotely in the neighborhood if they were servicing Hubble. But the ISS orbits at 51.6º-a concession to the Russians when we built the station, since their Soyuz spacecraft regularly ferry crews up and down. After the shuttle is destroyed, the surviving astronauts seek refuge on the International Space Station, which is conveniently located nearby. Junk from a Russian pigeon-shoot might cross the shuttle’s orbit on some of its passes, but it would not happen right away-and certainly not every hour and a half. Russian satellites, however, orbit at higher inclinations, for the same reason-to keep them as close as possible to the Motherland. The shuttle, in most cases, stays at that angle too. So, where to begin?įirst of all, the Hubble orbits at an inclination of 28.5º, which maximizes the time it spends passing over the American mainland on its various trips around the planet. The shuttle gets clobbered, most of the astronauts die, something less than hilarity ensues. An American space shuttle is in orbit on a Hubble Telescope repair mission at the time, and not only does the satellite disaster plunge the crew into radio blackout, it also puts them directly in the path of a high-speed swarm of space junk that whips around the planet every 90 minutes. The triggering incident in Gravity-equivalent to the exploding oxygen tank in Apollo 13-occurs when Russia launches a missile to destroy one of its own satellites, accidentally creating a chain reaction that demolishes most of the communications satellites orbiting the planet. Spoilers, by the way, lurk here like satellite debris, so proceed with caution if you haven’t yet seen the movie. ( MORE: Space Race 2013: Who’s Up, Who’s Down, Who’s Going Nowhere)Īll the same, science is science and facts are facts and when a movie purports to traffic in both, it’s only fair to point out the blunders-none of which were howlers in this case, but at least some of which could (and should) have been avoided. (Disclosure: I wrote the book on which Apollo 13 was based and served as a consultant on the movie.) Gravity is a space disaster and survival movie that never happened in real life-though in smaller and surely less cinematic ways it could. What’s more, Gravity, which does get much more right than it gets wrong, is not Apollo 13 or The Right Stuff-movies that had to hew close to history because they were based on real events. It’s really beside the point to mention any scientific inaccuracies in Gravity since the movie is so gripping, so jaw-dropping, so visually, gobsmackingly good that it seems churlish to pay attention to much else. Doesn’t matter if you’re Bullock, Penelope Cruz or Nicole Kidman, you would not be looking your best. She’d also be wearing an adult diaper and would be wringing with sweat. (91 m) of fashionable plastic tubing running through it. In truth, what an astronaut returning from what NASA calls extavehicular activity (EVA) would have on under her pressure suit would be what’s known as a Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment, a full-body, crazily complex bit of space finery that has about 300 ft. And so, in the new-and extraordinary-movie Gravity, when Sandra Bullock comes inside after a spacewalk, she shucks her pressure suit and floats about in a crop-top and boxer briefs, perfectly toned, perfectly lovely, zero-g eye candy. Tall, short, lumpy, lithe-as long as you’re fit and fall within a reasonable height and weight range, you clear at least one simple hurdle to becoming an astronaut. Follow doesn’t care if you have a hot body or not. Chimpanzee vs gorilla vs human7/2/2023 Going back a little farther, the Hominidae clade is 13 million years old. Using such reasoning, it has been estimated that the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (with whom we share 99 percent of our genes) lived five million years ago. This discovery became known as the "molecular clock." If the clock is calibrated using fossil data or data on continental drift, then the ages of various groups of organisms can theoretically be calculated based on comparisons of their sequences. It was soon learned from such studies that for a given protein, the number of amino acid substitutions per year could-as a first approximation-be treated as constant. The sequences of a protein (say, hemoglobin) from two organisms can be compared and the number of positions where the two sequences differ counted. This changed in the 1950s and 1960s when protein sequence data and DNA sequence data, respectively, became available. So despite analyses of anatomy, the evolutionary relationships among many groups of organisms remained unclear due to lack of suitable data. Furthermore, it is almost impossible to obtain time estimates from these data. For example, ascertaining which similarities resulted from common ancestry and which resulted from convergent evolution can, on occasion, prove tricky. One problem with morphological data is that it is sometimes difficult to interpret. Similarity, in this context, refers to morphological features such as eyes and skeletal structure. Analogously, the greater similarity between humans and chimps than between humans and plants is taken as evidence that the last common ancestor of humans and chimps is far more recent than the last common ancestor of humans and plants. We all know that siblings are more similar to each other than are cousins, which reflects the fact that siblings have a more recent common ancestor (parents) than do cousins (grandparents). Thus, researchers also consider comparative data. There are, however, few good fossils available compared with the vast biodiversity around us. Once the age of the fossil is determined (using radiocarbon or thermoluminescence dating techniques, for example), we then know that an ancestor of the organism in question existed at least that long ago. Fossils are conceptually easy to interpret. There are two major classes of evidence that allow us to estimate how old a particular clade is: fossil data and comparative data from living organisms. Within that clade the animal with which humans share the most recent common ancestor is the chimpanzee.įAMILY TREE of the Hominidae shows that chimpanzees are our closest living relatives. In the diagram of the Hominidae at right, the clade designated by node 2 includes gorillas, humans and chimps. Biologists refer to such nodes as the last common ancestor of a group of organisms, and all tips that connect to a particular node form a clade. The nodes of the tree denote the common ancestors of all the tips connected to that node. The tips of such a tree show organisms that are alive today. If life is the result of "descent with modification," as Charles Darwin put it, we can try to represent its history as a kind of family tree derived from these morphological and genetic characteristics. Researchers generally agree that among the living animals in this group, humans are most closely related to chimpanzees, judging from comparisons of anatomy and genetics. Humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans and their extinct ancestors form a family of organisms known as the Hominidae. |